Puritan Reformed Theological Seminary

Persecution and PTSD: How the Experiences of the Early Church can Influence Sufferers of Wartime Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Joshua Lamb

311: Ancient Church History

November 10, 2014

Thesis

The Christian church was born under persecution and trauma. The false arrest, illegal trial, and murder of Jesus Christ marked the first traumatic death of the Christian church. Since then, believers have suffered under wars, famine, persecution, martyrdom, and many other severe events. This paper seeks to examine the counseling methods of the early church fathers to a church experiencing trauma and how their exhortations can be used by those who suffer from wartime post-traumatic stress disorder. It will also be shown how the counseling of the early church fathers is more applicable to the problem of PTSD than methods employed by secular psychology.

Persecution in the Early Church

The church has experienced persecution in various forms from the time of the Apostles to the present day. Early Roman emperors were at times particularly oppressive of Christians due to their break from religious and social norms of the day such as emperor-worship. In Roman culture it was difficult to be a confessing Christian and remain conspicuous. Paganism so pervaded the culture that to use the public baths, enlist in the military, or conduct transactions at the market often required idolatrous activities that would be against the conscience of a believer. This inherently caused Christians to be ostracized and marginalized even under normal circumstances.

However, circumstances could shift from normal to extreme very rapidly depending upon the temperament of local or national government officials. Under Emperor Nero, Christians were burnt alive and used for illumination in the palace courtyard and elsewhere¹. These spectacles caused Christians to be referred to as semaxii, in reference to the boards that believers were often lashed to while undergoing this torture². The chastity of women was also violated on several occasions³⁴. Many other incidents of persecution occurred throughout the early church, such as the seizure and arson of personal property⁵. The level of violence experienced by Christians could also be inflamed by personal feuds or disputes with non-believers. It was easy to leverage the faith of a believer against them by dragging them before a proconsul under the charge of refusing to worship the emperor. A faithful believer would confess Christ, forcing the official into a position to punish them. How then did Christians live faithfully amidst such a reality?

Christian Behavior under Persecution

The harsh reality of persecution caused many faithful believers to become martyrs. Their behavior is crucial to understanding their perspective of history and personal identity. Several accounts of early church history reveal that Christians who were martyred shared at least several characteristics: they refused to renounce Christ under threat of death, they gave evangelistic testimony before their accusers of the work of Christ, they sang hymns, and they offered themselves up to God in prayer⁶.

Two examples of faithful martyrs are Polycarp (the bishop of Smyrna) and Vibia Perpetua, an honestiores (from the noble class). Perpetua was arrested along with several other believers and put into prison where they shared in the agape feast (a time of fellowship) the night before being thrown into the arena to be executed for their belief in Christ⁷. The next morning as they entered the arena, their conduct was recorded to be upright and peaceful, even while being gored by bulls⁸. The account of Perpetua reveals how Christians turned to the Lord and the fellowship of the saints even in the midst of certain death, and were able to have strong faith in Jesus in the worst of circumstances.

The account of the Martyrdom of Polycarp records in detail how the 86-year old bishop of Smyrna faithfully walked through martyrdom, which served as an example to many Christians until circa A.D. 311 when much persecution was relaxed by edicts issued by Emperor Constantine⁹. The account is valuable because it records how Polycarp held fast his confession, offered to explain Christ to the proconsul, and offered up prayer to God before and during martyrdom.

There are also records of Christians serving in the Roman military under Emperor Diocletian and edicts that those who would not offer pagan sacrifices should be scourged¹⁰. Christians in this situation faced both the horrors of war that modern veterans face, as well as the condemnation from many church fathers who strongly exhorted pacifism¹¹. Despite these pressures, history records how the prayers of Christian soldiers aided Rome in a battle against the Germans near the Danube river circa A.D. 173, further emphasizing the existence of faithful Christians among the ranks of Roman soldiers¹².

These accounts demonstrate that even under the worst of circumstances, Christians understood and communicated who they were, who Jesus was, and where they were going. These three concepts were reinforced by the early church fathers and have crucial application to today’s church and members who are suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Church Fathers Counsel to the Persecuted Church

While the Martyrdom of Polycarp serves as an example of faithful witness, the Letter of Polycarp to the Philippians serves as a model of exhortation to the church. Several concepts in this letter provide insight into how Christians are to live out faith when surrounded by chaos and trauma. Polycarp encourages believers to hold steadfastly to Jesus as our hope and guarantee of righteousness, obey God’s precepts, be assured that faith is not in vain, and pray even for those who persecute them¹³.

The first exhortation to hold steadfastly to Jesus should be the primary mission of all believers at all times, especially facing persecution or trauma. The account of the martyrs as well as the accounts of Christians throughout the ages prove well the presence of Christ to strengthen in the midst of trial. Polycarp knows well that Jesus and His righteousness alone can keep us faithful in the worst of circumstances.

Secondly, he exhorts believers to obey the teachings that have been handed down to them, understanding the Christian prerogative to pursue holiness is not abandoned simply when hard times are present, but that God is honored when we by faith pursue righteousness even when it leads to persecution.

Thirdly, he reminds Christians of past accounts of God’s faithfulness, which echo throughout the ages. The modern church has even more examples of God’s faithfulness than Polycarp had available, proving that God is the same yesterday, today, and forever. Faith is strengthened for the future when we remember God’s faithfulness in the past.

Lastly, Polycarp both exhorts believers to pray, and offers intercession for the church at Philippi. Although believers cannot control their circumstances in the midst of trial, they have access to the God who can. With a truly eternal perspective, Polycarp follows after Jesus in commanding believers to pray even for their persecutors. He then prays for the church, modeling intercessory prayer for leaders and counselors after him.

Polycarp was both a counselor and a martyr, understanding with his fellow persecuted believers who he was, who Jesus was, and where he was going.

Introduction to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Reports of combat-related Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and suicide among veterans in the United States continue to rise every year, despite increased attention to the issue in the fields of psychology and biomedicine.

The problem is clear. Veteran suicide accounts for approximately 20% of all suicides in the United States¹⁴. What many Soldiers are not aware of heading off to war is that the psychological effects will endure long after their time of service is complete¹⁵. Many veterans suffer severe psychological debilitation and failure to readjust to normal civilian life upon returning from combat. These problems then fuel secondary social issues such as prolonged joblessness, failure to sustain relationships, sexual promiscuity, and substance abuse. Due to attempts by veterans to self-medicate with drugs and alcohol, deep psychological issues can be covered over for an extended period of time before they fully manifest¹⁶.

In 1973, Psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton examined the impact of the Vietnam War on returning veterans. Lifton’s work helped to establish understanding of what is today known as “moral injury”, the act of a soldier breaching cultural and religious mores regarding the taking of human life in the midst of combat¹⁷. It is in this morally grey area that soldiers find themselves in when returning home. The Vietnam era was particularly devastating due to the venomous reaction of the public to soldiers as they returned home, often just days after leaving the battlefield¹⁸. Facing hostility abroad and hostility at home, many fell quickly into substance abuse.

The medical and psychiatric communities have attempted to address the symptoms of PTSD through a combination of antidepressants and psychiatric care, often stemming from a naturalistic worldview. This therapy often draws on themes of self-forgiveness and the renunciation of self-blame¹⁹. While seemingly appropriate, these solutions are not applicable to the problem of PTSD, which is a moral and existential crises versus a psychiatric condition. Psychologist Edward Tick stated that “psychologists are trained not to talk much about spirituality or morality in the first place. But these are precisely the dimensions we must address in order to evolve strategies that facilitate identity reconstruction and soul restoration.²⁰” Studies indeed confirm that veterans of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom are seeking out clergy more frequently than psychiatrists/psychologists²¹.

If both the reporting of PTSD and desire to seek out clergy continues, religious institutions have an opportunity to assist sufferers in a way that is outside the scope of other organizations²². Christian churches and para-church organizations steward the Gospel message, record the redemptive acts of God in history, and possess a community of the faithful. It is these offerings from churches that many veterans are in desperate need of. Many passages in scripture relate directly to the trauma associated with war. Additionally, key figures such as the Apostle Paul, King David, Jesus Christ, and numerous saints and martyrs throughout history have experiences that resonate well with sufferers of PTSD²³. Herein lies an opportunity not only to assist veterans but also to enhance the biblical counseling movement, which in the era of counselors such as David Powlison, is focused on the relationship between worship and idolatry. In the Journal of Biblical Counseling, Winston Smith notes “The human condition isn’t just one of high-handed sin, but also ignorance, shame, weakness, and suffering, none of which necessarily involve idolatry or the need for rebuke. It seems to me that advancement isn’t so much a matter of further clarifying the sinful core of idolatry, but of exploring the variety of ways that the Bible asks us to understand our brokenness and need for redemption.²⁴”

Further Contrast of Biblical Worldview with Secular Psychiatry

In juxtaposition to the biblical viewpoint, the current American cultural understanding of PTSD and related treatment stems from a naturalistic worldview. This understanding is not comprehensive enough to treat severe moral, spiritual, and identity crises caused by combat trauma. However, secular psychiatric research is helpful to identify terms used by sufferers to describe their feelings of survivor’s guilt, shame, remorse, helplessness, anxiety, hyper-vigilance, and spiritual futility²⁵.

Theology Professor at Notre Dame, Gerald McKenny, has argued that modern medicine and bioethics have focused attention on the relief of suffering to the extent that there is a failure to differentiate that suffering in some instances can be a catalyst for change²⁶. It is the worldview of secular psychiatry that limits its ability to treat sufferers of PTSD, because it is inwardly focused on self and not outwardly and upwardly focused on God.

Although the medical and psychiatric fields have taken an extreme interest in the individual and societal consequences of war, there still remains a difficulty engaging sufferers of PTSD on a level that is transformational. Recovering from this type of trauma requires one to re-evaluate their concept of self and identity, which is where the fields of secular psychiatry and biblical counseling have a major point of difference.

Secular psychiatry would say that identity formation in an individual is altered from a combination of nature vs nurture. However, Lacanian psychiatric theory would posit that identity formation takes place out of phantasmal projection – that is we internally project who we would desire to be and then attempt to live in the real world based on this self-conception²⁷. PTSD treatment would then involve a reconstruction of identity according to the themes of self-forgiveness for past actions in wartime, and/or a dissonance of past and present identity. Unfortunately, the Soldier is often keenly aware of past actions and have a real sense of personal guilt. Peter Marin writes in Psychology Today that

“Such knowledge has come to many vets too. What they know is this: the world is real; the suffering of others is real; one’s actions can sometimes irrevocably determine the destiny of others; the mistakes one makes are often transmuted directly into others’ pain; there is sometimes no way to undo that pain—the dead remain dead, the maimed are forever maimed, and there is no way to deny one’s responsibility or culpability, for those mistakes are written, forever and as if in fire, in others’ flesh.²⁸”

It is this real and tangible awareness of moral guilt that modern psychiatry is unable to address in order to facilitate true identity reconstruction.

In contrast, the biblical viewpoint of personal identity stems from who someone is in relation to the Lord Jesus Christ. Inherent in this relationship is the presupposition that what truly matters is not a phantasm or self-conception of identity, but the reception of identity. We receive our identity and are told who we are and what we are from God. Some put forward that this isn’t only a static positioning of relationship with Christ, but is also a dynamic positioning as we follow Christ in the context of an active relationship²⁹. This viewpoint aids sufferers of wartime PTSD because it places their identity in the context of a divine relationship, addresses tangible moral guilt, and provides true identity restoration between the Soldier and God.

Application for the Contemporary Church

The counsel of the early church fathers and the records of faithful martyrs reveal several lessons that can be adopted by present sufferers of wartime trauma. These lessons can be categorized into two groups: their understanding, and what actions they took based on that understanding.

The church fathers understood the identity of Jesus Christ, who they were in relation to Him, and their circumstances in light of eternity. As confessing believers in Christ, the church fathers knew Jesus’ identity as Savior which fueled their exhortations to the church to hold fast amid persecution. They also understood that as disciples they were complete in Christ and that their persecution and possible martyrdom would only serve to further the perfection of their faith. Their view of present circumstances against the backdrop of eternity granted them an objective understanding which comforted them during trial. These concepts are powerful to sufferers of PTSD because the identity of Jesus is stronger than their shattered identity, because they need to understand who they are in relation to God, and because they need to know how to place their story in eternal context. If these ideas are communicated by ministers or biblical counselors they would serve to assist suffering veterans in rebuilding their identity.

Based on the understanding of these concepts, faithful martyrs took practical steps which would also assist PTSD sufferers in their recovery. Several accounts reveal that martyrs often used hymnology and prayers of supplication to God during their hardest moments of trial. The use of hymns reinforces the truths of scripture and centers the worshiper on the truth of Jesus Christ.

In conclusion, the counsel of the early church fathers to persecuted believers provided theological and practical concepts that can be adopted by the modern church to greatly aid sufferers of wartime trauma as they rebuild their identity and find their place in God’s redemptive story.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Augustine. The city of God. A Doubleday image book D59. Garden City, N.Y: Image Books, 1958.

Berg, Gary. “The relationship between spiritual distress, PTSD and depression in Vietnam combat veterans.” Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling (Online) 65, no. 1 (January 1, 2011). http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0001905510&site=ehost-live&scope=site (accessed August 23, 2014).

Beuving, Mark. “The early church on killing: a comprehensive sourcebook on war, abortion, and capital punishment.” Trinity Journal 34, no. 2 (September 1, 2013): 325–327.

Donovan, Jane. “Battle scars: veterans turn to clergy for counseling.” Christian Century 129, no. 3 (February 8, 2012): 34–36.

Eusibius. Ecclesiastical History 5.5, n.d.

Gebhardt, Oscar von. Acta Martyrum Selecta 91. Berlin, 1902.

Green, Jocelyn. “When the War Never Ends.” Christianity Today 53, no. 7 (July 2009): 48–50.

Hall, Newman. Gethsemane, or leaves of healing from the garden of grief. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1891.

Hurst, Andrea. “On the Meaning of Being Real: Fantasy and ‘the Real’ in Personal Identity-Formation.” South African Journal of Philosophy 31, no. 2 (May 2012): 278–289.

J.B. Lightfoot, and J.R. Harmer. The Apostolic Fathers: Greek texts and English translation of their writings. Translated by Michael W. Holmes. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, 1992.

Jacob, Mel. “Post-traumatic stress disorder : facing futility in and after Vietnam.” Currents in Theology and Mission 10, no. 5 (October 1, 1983): 291–298.

Kinghorn, Warren. “Combat trauma and moral fragmentation: a theological account of moral injury.” Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics 32, no. 2 (September 1, 2012): 57–74.

Marin, Peter. “Living in Moral Pain.” Veterans For Peace UK, n.d. http://veteransforpeace.org.uk/2013/living-in-moral-pain-by-peter-marin/ (accessed September 8, 2014).

Ruinart. Acta Martyrum Sincera 125. Amsterdam, 1713.

———. Acta Martyrum Sincera 145. Amsterdam, 1713.

Singer, Mel. “Shame, Guilt, Self-Hatred and Remorse in the Psychotherapy of Vietnam Combat Veterans Who Committed Atrocities.” American Journal of Psychotherapy 58, no. 4 (September 2004): 377–385.

Smith, Winston. “Book Review: The Biblical Counseling Movement after Adams.” Journal of Biblical Counseling 27, no. 3 (2013): 89–93.

Stone, Patrick James. “Post-traumatic faith: understanding the plight of Christians who have killed in combat.” Christianity Today 50, no. 5 (May 1, 2006): 56–56.

Tacitus. Annals 5.5, n.d.

———. Annals 15.44, n.d.

Tertullian. Apology 50, n.d.

———. On Idolatry 19, n.d.

Veilleux, Armand. “Identity with Christ: Modeling Our Lives on RB 72.” Cistercian Studies Quarterly 45, no. 1 (February 2010): 13–33.

Workman, Herbert B. “Persecution in the early church: a chapter in the history of renunciation.” 314–319. The 36th Fernley lecture. London: Charles H. Kelly, 1906.

¹. . Tacitus, Annals 15.44, n.d. ↩

². . Tertullian, Apology 50, n.d. ↩

³. . Tacitus, Annals 5.5, n.d. ↩

⁴. . Augustine, The city of God, A Doubleday image book D59 (Garden ↩

City, N.Y: Image Books, 1958), 52-61.

⁵. . Ruinart, Acta Martyrum Sincera 125 (Amsterdam, 1713). ↩

⁶. . Ruinart, Acta Martyrum Sincera 145 (Amsterdam, 1713). ↩

⁷. . Herbert B. Workman, “Persecution in the early church: a chapter ↩

in the history of renunciation,” The 36th Fernley lecture (London:
Charles H. Kelly, 1906), 314–319.

⁸. . Oscar von Gebhardt, Acta Martyrum Selecta 91 (Berlin, 1902). ↩

⁹. . J.B. Lightfoot and J.R. Harmer, *The Apostolic Fathers: Greek ↩

texts and English translation of their writings*, trans by. Michael
W. Holmes, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, 1992), 222-245.

¹⁰. . Mark Beuving, “The early church on killing: a comprehensive ↩

sourcebook on war, abortion, and capital punishment,” *Trinity
Journal* 34, no. 2 (September 1, 2013): 325–327.

¹¹. . Tertullian, On Idolatry 19, n.d. ↩

¹². . Eusibius, Ecclesiastical History 5.5, n.d. ↩

¹³. . J.B. Lightfoot and J.R. Harmer, *The Apostolic Fathers: Greek ↩

texts and English translation of their writings,* 215-221.

¹⁴. . Warren Kinghorn, “Combat trauma and moral fragmentation: a ↩

theological account of moral injury,” *Journal of the Society of
Christian Ethics* 32, no. 2 (September 1, 2012): 57–74.

¹⁵. . Patrick James Stone, “Post-traumatic faith: understanding the ↩

plight of Christians who have killed in combat,” *Christianity
Today* 50, no. 5 (May 1, 2006): 56–56.

¹⁶. . Mel Jacob, “Post-traumatic stress disorder : facing futility in ↩

and after Vietnam,” *Currents in Theology and Mission* 10, no. 5
(October 1, 1983): 291–298.

¹⁷. . Kinghorn, “Combat trauma and moral fragmentation.” ↩

¹⁸. . Jacob, “Post-traumatic stress disorder.” ↩

¹⁹. . Mel Singer, “Shame, Guilt, Self-Hatred and Remorse in the ↩

Psychotherapy of Vietnam Combat Veterans Who Committed Atrocities,”
*American Journal of Psychotherapy* 58, no. 4 (September 2004):
377–385.

²⁰. . Gary Berg, “The relationship between spiritual distress, PTSD ↩

and depression in Vietnam combat veterans,” *Journal of Pastoral
Care & Counseling (Online)* 65, no. 1 (January 1, 2011),
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0001905510&site=ehost-live&scope=site
(accessed August 23, 2014).

²¹. . Jane Donovan, “Battle scars: veterans turn to clergy for ↩

counseling,” *Christian Century* 129, no. 3 (February 8, 2012):
34–36.

²². . Jocelyn Green, “When the War Never Ends,” Christianity Today ↩

53, no. 7 (July 2009): 48–50.

²³. . Newman Hall, *Gethsemane, or leaves of healing from the garden ↩

of grief* (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1891).

²⁴. . Winston Smith, “Book Review: The Biblical Counseling Movement ↩

after Adams,” *Journal of Biblical Counseling* 27, no. 3 (2013):
89–93.

²⁵. . Jacob, “Post-traumatic stress disorder.” ↩

²⁶. . Kinghorn, “Combat trauma and moral fragmentation.” ↩

²⁷. . Andrea Hurst, “On the Meaning of Being Real: Fantasy and ‘the ↩

Real’ in Personal Identity-Formation,” *South African Journal of
Philosophy* 31, no. 2 (May 2012): 278–289.

²⁸. . Peter Marin, “Living in Moral Pain,” Veterans For Peace UK, ↩

n.d.,
http://veteransforpeace.org.uk/2013/living-in-moral-pain-by-peter-marin/
(accessed September 8, 2014).

²⁹. . Armand Veilleux, “Identity with Christ: Modeling Our Lives on ↩

RB 72,” *Cistercian Studies Quarterly* 45, no. 1 (February 2010):
13–33.